Institute for Advanced Study. Campbell-Kelly, Martin (April 1982). "The Development of Computer Programming in Britain (1945 to 1955)". IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. Robertson, James E. (1955), Illiac Design Techniques, report number UIUCDCS-R-1955-146, Digital Computer Laboratory, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (USPTO Web site). Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (Google Patents). Lavington, Simon, ed. (2012). Alan Turing and his Contemporaries: Building the World's First Computers. London: British Computer Society. Johnson, Roger (April 2008). "School of Computer Science & Information Systems: A Short History" (PDF). Birkbeck College. University of London. Bell, C. Gordon; Cady, R.; McFarland, H.; O'Laughlin, J.; Noonan, R.; Wulf, W. (1970), "A New Architecture for Mini-Computers-The DEC PDP-11" (PDF), Spring Joint Computer Conference, pp. Null, Linda; Lobur, Julia (2010), The essentials of computer organization and architecture (3rd ed.), Jones & Bartlett Learning, pp. Backus, John W. "Can Programming Be Liberated from the von Neumann Style? A Functional Style and Its Algebra of Programs".
Accurate information will help get the best vision improvement. Patients may benefit from one of the new lens designs made specifically for computer work. Minimize discomfort from blue light and glare. Blue light from LED and fluorescent lighting, as well as monitors, tablets and mobile devices, can negatively affect vision over the long term. Special lens tints and coatings can reduce the harmful impact of blue light. Minimize glare on the computer screen by using a glare reduction filter, repositioning the screen or using drapes, shades or blinds. Also, keeping screens clean; dirt-free and removing fingerprints can decrease glare and improve clarity. Adjust work area and computer for comfort. When using computers, most people prefer a work surface height of about 26 inches. Desks and tables are usually 29 inches high. Place the computer screen 16 to 30 inches away. The top of the screen should be slightly below horizontal eye level. Tilt the top of the screen away at a 10- to 20-degree angle. Use an adjustable copyholder. Place reference material at the same distance from eyes as the computer screen and as close to the screen as possible. That way the eyes won't have to change focus when looking from one to the other. Take alternative task breaks throughout the day. Make phone calls or photocopies. Consult with co-workers. After working on the computer for an extended period, do anything in which the eyes don't have to focus on something up close.
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The overall methodology depends heavily on the underlying sciences of geometry, optics, physics, and perception. Computer graphics is responsible for displaying art and image data effectively and meaningfully to the consumer. It is also used for processing image data received from the physical world, such as photo and video content. Computer graphics development has had a significant impact on many types of media and has revolutionized animation, movies, advertising, video games, in general. The term computer graphics has been used in a broad sense to describe "almost everything on computers that is not text or sound". Today, computer graphics is widespread. Such imagery is found in and on television, newspapers, weather reports, and in a variety of medical investigations and surgical procedures. A well-constructed graph can present complex statistics in a form that is easier to understand and interpret. In the media "such graphs are used to illustrate papers, reports, theses", and other presentation material. Many tools have been developed to visualize data.
The word computer refers to an object that can accept some input and produce some output. In fact, the human brain itself is a sophisticated computer, and scientists are learning more about how it works with each passing year. Our most common use of the word computer, though, is to describe an electronic device containing a microprocessor. A microprocessor is a small electronic device that can carry out complex calculations in the blink of an eye. You can find microprocessors in many devices you use each day, such as cars, refrigerators and televisions. The most recognized device with a microprocessor is the personal computer, or PC. In fact, the concept of a computer has become nearly synonymous with the term PC. You might also envision different forms of PCs, such as desktop computers, towers and laptops. The term PC has been associated with certain brands, such as Intel processors or Microsoft operating systems. PCs trace their history back to the 1970s when a man named Ed Roberts began to sell computer kits based on a microprocessor chip designed by Intel.
In 1975, Apple Inc. began donating Apple 1 model computers to schools, and mainframes began to lose their former dominance over academic research. Computer usage continued to grow rapidly throughout this era. In 1977, it was estimated that over 90% of students at Dartmouth College had used computers at some point in their college careers. Walter Koetke, the director of a Lexington, Massachusetts school system commented that, "It's still possible for a student to get through here without using the computer, but he would certainly have to try to do it". In 1983, Drexel University became the first campus to require every student to purchase a laptop. Computer-aided instruction gained widespread acceptance in schools by the early 1980s. It was during this period that drilling and practice programs were first developed for exclusive classroom use. Schools became divided over which computer manufacturers they were willing to support, with grade schools generally using Apple computers and high schools preferring DOS based machines.
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